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The Woman Who Smashed Codes: A True Story of Love, Spies, and the Unlikely Heroine Who Outwitted America's Enemies Hardcover – September 26, 2017
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National Bestseller
NPR Best Book of the Year
“Not all superheroes wear capes, and Elizebeth Smith Friedman should be the subject of a future Wonder Woman movie.” —The New York Times
Joining the ranks of Hidden Figures and In the Garden of Beasts, the incredible true story of the greatest codebreaking duo that ever lived, an American woman and her husband who invented the modern science of cryptology together and used it to confront the evils of their time, solving puzzles that unmasked Nazi spies and helped win World War II.
In 1916, at the height of World War I, brilliant Shakespeare expert Elizebeth Smith went to work for an eccentric tycoon on his estate outside Chicago. The tycoon had close ties to the U.S. government, and he soon asked Elizebeth to apply her language skills to an exciting new venture: code-breaking. There she met the man who would become her husband, groundbreaking cryptologist William Friedman. Though she and Friedman are in many ways the "Adam and Eve" of the NSA, Elizebeth’s story, incredibly, has never been told.
In The Woman Who Smashed Codes, Jason Fagone chronicles the life of this extraordinary woman, who played an integral role in our nation’s history for forty years. After World War I, Smith used her talents to catch gangsters and smugglers during Prohibition, then accepted a covert mission to discover and expose Nazi spy rings that were spreading like wildfire across South America, advancing ever closer to the United States. As World War II raged, Elizebeth fought a highly classified battle of wits against Hitler’s Reich, cracking multiple versions of the Enigma machine used by German spies. Meanwhile, inside an Army vault in Washington, William worked furiously to break Purple, the Japanese version of Enigma—and eventually succeeded, at a terrible cost to his personal life.
Fagone unveils America’s code-breaking history through the prism of Smith’s life, bringing into focus the unforgettable events and colorful personalities that would help shape modern intelligence. Blending the lively pace and compelling detail that are the hallmarks of Erik Larson’s bestsellers with the atmosphere and intensity of The Imitation Game, The Woman Who Smashed Codes is page-turning popular history at its finest.
- Print length464 pages
- LanguageEnglish
- PublisherDey Street Books
- Publication dateSeptember 26, 2017
- Dimensions6 x 1.41 x 9 inches
- ISBN-100062430483
- ISBN-13978-0062430489
Book recommendations, author interviews, editors' picks, and more. Read it now.
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From the Publisher

Nathalia Holt interviews Jason Fagone about his book, The Woman Who Smashed Codes.
Nathalia Holt: What drew you to this story?
Jason Fagone: Well, it’s one of these amazing American origin stories. A hundred years ago, a young woman in her early twenties suddenly became one of the greatest codebreakers in the country. She taught herself how to solve secret messages without knowing the key. Even though she started out as a poet, not a mathematician, she turned out to be a genius at solving these very difficult puzzles, and her solutions ended up changing the 20th century. She helped us win the world wars. And she also shaped the intelligence community as we know it today.
NH: William Friedman has long been recognized as a pioneer of cryptology, so why have we never heard of Elizebeth before?
JF: Sexism and secrecy. A lot of the time she was omitted or even erased from the records by the men in her life. Sometimes they were men close to her, like her husband, William Friedman, who was also a champion codebreaker, and sometimes they were men in power, like J. Edgar Hoover. All through World War II she used her skills to hunt Nazi spies who were spreading into the West. She broke these Nazi spy codes for the FBI, which would have been lost without her—and then Hoover turned around and painted himself as the big hero. There was nothing she could do, because of secrecy rules.
NH: In the Author’s Note of your book you describe the excitement of discovering Elizebeth’s archives in a vault of a Virginia library. What was that moment like and what types of resources did you use to research this story?
JF: I’ll never forget that moment. Elizebeth donated 22 boxes of papers to the George C. Marshall Foundation in Lexington, Virginia. Since her death in 1980 those boxes have been carefully preserved at the Foundation’s library in a vault. Elizebeth left thousands of her personal letters, whole diaries full of poems, newspaper clippings of her famous rum cases, and original code worksheets. She kept everything that wasn’t classified. The only period of her life missing from the archive was 1939 through 1945—World War II. So I had to patch the gap. It took me more than two years to find the missing records, hunting through archives in the U.S. and the U.K.
NH: How can Elizebeth Smith Friedman’s story inspire young women today?
JF: I think a lot of professional women today can relate to her experiences. She did all this important work and got very little credit. But at the same time, because she was so good at her job, she had a lasting impact on the world. She blazed a trail in a lot of ways, and she did it in her own style. Once she wrote, “If I may capture a goodly number of your messages, even though I have never seen your code book, I may still read your thoughts.” That captures her personality: Do whatever you like, but I still have this mind, and you will have to reckon with it.
NH: This book is in many ways a love story. Can you tell us about the letters sent between Elizebeth and her husband?
JF: Elizebeth and William started writing to each other before they were romantically involved, when they were still only friends. They were these two young people who wanted to accomplish great things, to leave a mark. In 1918, when William joined the Army and sailed to France to serve as a codebreaker, he wrote Elizebeth these 20- and 30-page love letters by the light of an oil lamp, calling her 'Divine Fire.' He liked to include bits of code that he knew only Elizebeth would understand, and she replied in code, too. For the Friedmans it was a lovers’ shorthand, a way of staying connected. And later, when they had kids, they taught the kids how to do it, too.
Nathalia Holt is the New York Times bestselling author of Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us from Missiles to the Moon to Mars and Cured: The People who Defeated HIV.
Editorial Reviews
Review
“[Fagone] documents the amazing arc of his subject’s life, often in stunning detail…Ms. Friedman was not only crypto pioneer and a patriotic spycatcher, but also an inspiring role model.” — Wired
“The Woman Who Smashed Codes...has drawn comparisons to Hidden Figures, though we think this one is better. In journalist Jason Fagone’s deft hands, we not only learn about a lost national treasure, but also get new insight into the history of our country at war.” — New York Post
“[Elizebeth Friedman] was a tireless and talented code breaker who brought down gangsters and Nazi spies...a fascinating swath of American history that begins in Gilded Age Chicago and moves to the inner workings of our intelligence agencies at the close of WWII.”
— Los Angeles Times
“Damned-near impossible to put down. The book has everything: thrills, chills, kills, love, crypto, and a hopeful sense that a nearly forgotten American genius, Elizebeth Smith Friedman, is finally being given her due.” — Ars Technica
“It’s unsurprising that the name Elizebeth Friedman doesn’t ring a bell for most Americans, given how much of her work was classified during the war.... Still, this Quaker-born poet from Indiana was the grandmother of the National Security Agency and virtually created the modern code-breaking profession. Trust us on this one.” — Forbes
“This is the best work of nonfiction I’ve ever read—no hyperbole...Fagone has painstakingly worked backward to piece together a truth that has been buried for too long. In the process, he has helped Friedman gain recognition as the American hero she was.” — MIT Technology Review
“In The Woman Who Smashed Codes, journalist Jason Fagone recreates a world and a cast of characters so utterly fascinating they will inhabit the psyches of its readers long after the book has been read.” — Associated Press
“One of the year’s best reads, it is both deeply researched and beautifully told.” — The Philadelphia Inquirer
“The Woman Who Smashed Codes should be the next Hidden Figures...a story that anyone with interest in the time period has to read, a key piece of the puzzle about America’s war effort.” — Washington Post
“This book tells the incredible, little-known story of code-breaker Elizebeth Smith and her husband, cryptologist William Friedman, otherwise known as the ‘Adam and Eve’ of the NSA.” — New York Post
“Reads like some wild cross between a fairy tale and a gripping detective thriller... a sheer delight to read.” — San Francisco Chronicle
“Bursting with details in everything from dinner parties to spy rings, Fagone’s book offers the story of a fascinating woman in perilous times, and asks some uneasy questions about the present.” — NPR.org
“[Fagone] records the pair’s accomplishments, trials, and love affair, taking care to ensure that Elizebeth finally receives the recognition she deserves...[a] carefully researched story of a smart and loyal but overlooked woman.” — Library Journal (starred review)
“Riveting, inspiring, and rich in colorful characters, Fagone’s extensively researched and utterly dazzling title is popular history at its very best and a book club natural.” — Booklist (starred review)
“The Woman Who Smashed Codes is historical reporting done right, assigning credit where it is long overdue.” — Seattle Book Review
“A bang-up research effort [and] an engaging resurrection of a significant player in the world of cryptology.” — Kirkus Reviews
“Superb storytelling” — Providence Journal
“Fagone is a superb writer and has created a fascinating tale of a woman who brought down Prohibition-era smugglers, Nazi’s, counterfeiters, gangsters and more. ” — Ben Rothke, RSA Conference
“A powerful love story, a story of war, and a fascinating biography, The Woman Who Smashed Codes is a magnificent work of literary nonfiction that sheds light on an important hidden figure. You will devour this book.” — Karen Abbott, New York Times bestselling author of Sin in the Second City
“Deeply reported and stunningly original, The Woman Who Smashed Codes is a riveting narrative about one of the most overlooked figures in American history—a figure whose remarkable story was essentially ignored for more than seventy years simply because she was a woman.” — Stefan Fatsis, bestselling author of Word Freak
“Jason Fagone is a master storyteller—and he’s telling one damn good story about a long-forgotten American heroine. It is, among many things, the compulsively readable history of the national security state in its infancy. His book is filled with memorable villains, intrigue, and love.” — Franklin Foer, New York Times Bestselling author of How Soccer Explains the World and the forthcoming World Without Mind
“Jason Fagone’s stunning narrative unearths an intimate and unexpected history of code breaking. This remarkable tale reveals the fundamental role cryptology has played in our past, and the untold story of the pioneering woman behind its evolution. It is a treasure of a book.” — Nathalia Holt, New York Times bestselling author of Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us From Missiles to the Moon to Mars
“In The Woman Who Smashed Codes, Jason Fagone rights a historical wrong, unshrouding an unsung heroine and revealing the love story at the root of the modern world’s spy games. But this book’s true revelation is the author’s talent: sure-handed, thrilling, and lyrical.” — Benjamin Wallace, author of The Billionaire’s Vinegar
From the Back Cover
In 1916, a young Quaker schoolteacher and poetry scholar named Elizebeth Smith was hired by an eccentric tycoon to find the secret messages he believed were embedded in Shakespeare’s plays. She moved to the tycoon’s lavish estate outside of Chicago expecting to spend her days poring through old books. But the rich man’s close ties to the U.S. government, and the urgencies of war, quickly transformed Elizebeth’s mission. She soon learned to apply her skills to an exciting new venture: codebreaking—the solving of secret messages without knowledge of the key. Working alongside her on the estate was William Friedman, a Jewish scientist who would become her husband and lifelong codebreaking partner. Elizebeth and William were in many ways the Adam and Eve of the National Security Agency, the U.S. institution that monitors and intercepts foreign communications to glean intelligence.
In The Woman Who Smashed Codes, Jason Fagone chronicles the life of this extraordinary woman who played an integral role in our nation’s history—from the Great War to the Cold War. He traces Elizebeth’s developing career through World War I, Prohibition, and the struggle against fascism. She helped catch gangsters and smugglers, exposed a Nazi spy ring in South America, and fought a clandestine battle of wits against Hitler’s Reich, cracking multiple versions of the Enigma machine used by German operatives to conceal their communications. And through it all, she served as muse to her husband, a master of puzzles, who astonished friends and foes alike. Inside an army vault in Washington, he worked furiously to break Purple, the Japanese version of Enigma—and eventually succeeded, at a terrible cost to his personal life.
Fagone unveils for the first time America’s codebreaking history through the prism of one remarkable woman’s life, bringing into focus the unforgettable events and colorful personalities that shaped the modern intelligence community. Rich in detail, The Woman Who Smashed Codes pays tribute to an unsung hero whose story belongs alongside those of other great female technologists, like Ada Lovelace and Grace Hopper, and whose oft-hidden contributions altered the course of the century.
About the Author
Jason Fagone is a journalist who covers science, technology, and culture. Named one of the “Ten Young Writers on the Rise” by the Columbia Journalism Review, he has written for GQ, Esquire, The Atlantic, the New York Times, the San Francisco Chronicle, Mother Jones, and Philadelphia magazine. Fagone is also the author of The Woman Who Smashed Codes: A True Story of Love, Spies, and the Unlikely Heroine Who Outwitted America’s Enemies. He lives in Swarthmore, PA.
Product details
- Publisher : Dey Street Books
- Publication date : September 26, 2017
- Edition : First Edition
- Language : English
- Print length : 464 pages
- ISBN-10 : 0062430483
- ISBN-13 : 978-0062430489
- Item Weight : 1.36 pounds
- Dimensions : 6 x 1.41 x 9 inches
- Best Sellers Rank: #270,530 in Books (See Top 100 in Books)
- #39 in Political Intelligence
- #91 in Women in History
- #456 in Women's Biographies
- Customer Reviews:
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About the author

I'm a 39-year-old author and reporter who covers technology, sports, and culture. My latest book is "The Woman Who Smashed Codes," about an American puzzle-solving heroine of the world wars. In 2014-15 I was a Knight-Wallace Fellow in journalism at the University of Michigan, and now I live near Philadelphia with my wife and daughter.
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Learn more how customers reviews work on AmazonCustomers say
Customers find this book fascinating and well-researched, particularly praising its in-depth information about early cryptologic efforts. The writing style is engaging, with one customer noting it reads like poetry, and they appreciate the book's portrayal of Elizebeth Friedman as a remarkable woman who cracked an incredible array of enemy codes. Moreover, the book provides wonderful insights into the world of espionage and the secrets revealed when documents become declassified. However, the pacing receives mixed reviews, with several customers finding it slow at times.
AI-generated from the text of customer reviews
Customers find the book's story engaging and fascinating, describing it as an amazing tale worth reading, with one customer highlighting the love story about the Friedman family.
"...This is a fascinating history, a wonderful story, about the pair who solved codes, birthed cryptanalysis, and whose quiet, behind-the-scenes work..." Read more
"This book was a treasure from beginning to end. It contains an avalanche of history that was completely unknown to me and was riveting to read about...." Read more
"Fascinating account of the then young woman who learned to translate codes...." Read more
"Loved the characters; found much about lots of history I didn’t know...." Read more
Customers appreciate the book's information quality, finding it very interesting and in-depth, with meticulous research throughout. One customer specifically notes its comprehensive coverage of early cryptologic efforts.
"...This is a fascinating history, a wonderful story, about the pair who solved codes, birthed cryptanalysis, and whose quiet, behind-the-scenes work..." Read more
"...It trains a well deserved spotlight on a unique and remarkable woman...." Read more
"Great insight to code breaking evolution throughout World War I and World War II...." Read more
"This book will make you think. Very informative and interesting. So many facts about the wars and the part that both the Friedman’s played in each...." Read more
Customers praise the writing quality of the book, noting it is well and engagingly written, with a style that reads like poetry.
"This book reads like a novel, but it is true! My thanks to the author for taking the time to research and write this" Read more
"...The Woman Who Smashed Codes is a well-written, detailed account of scientific and mathematical achievement...." Read more
"...The story is well-written, interesting, and moves at a nice pace...." Read more
"...explaining some technical aspects of the Friedman’s work, his prose is immaculate and touching...." Read more
Customers praise the biography of Elizebeth Friedman, describing it as a fascinating account of a pioneering woman.
"...The narrative captures the very essence of a brilliant mind and a life well lived...." Read more
"It is definitely a story of Feminist History and helps explain how the current government was set up. Worth the time." Read more
"...Very interesting perspective of the personalities in the FBI, Coast Guard, Army and Navy intelligence teams." Read more
"...It is also a story about sexism. Elizebeth was kept out of history both for security reasons and because she was a woman...." Read more
Customers find the book's coverage of code breaking fascinating, highlighting the legendary skills of the codebreakers and their ability to crack an incredible array of enemy codes.
"...It has made me really interested in code-breaking, and I will probably read further on the subject." Read more
"Incredible how the science of code breaking in America evolved because of a young couple without means who met by happenstance...." Read more
"...is rich in the different facets of cryptography, with many examples of codes and code breaking, the difference between codes and ciphers, etc...." Read more
"...They are both legendary in their skill at breaking codes and, depending on who’s telling the story, neither was more talented than the other...." Read more
Customers appreciate the book's cryptography history, particularly its fascinating discussions of cryptology work and the secrets revealed as documents become declassified.
"...history, a wonderful story, about the pair who solved codes, birthed cryptanalysis, and whose quiet, behind-the-scenes work led to criminals and war..." Read more
"...I really enjoyed learning the history of cryptology in America through the lenses of Elizebeth and William's lives, and am inspired by their pursuit..." Read more
"...Friedman and her husband William Friedman, who were pioneer cryptanalysts for the United States...." Read more
"...This is also a fascinating look into the history of spy organizations in the US and the birth of counterintelligence...." Read more
Customers appreciate the character development in the book, describing them as genuine human beings and true patriots.
"Loved the characters; found much about lots of history I didn’t know...." Read more
"...He was a colorful character, and the book captures his personality well. But the central story, of course, is Elizebeth Friedman and her work...." Read more
"...of Elizebeth Friedman when it came to codebreaking and her absolute loyalty to her teams and her government...." Read more
"TRUTH OF REAL HERO AND REAL HISTORY VACUUMS UP FBI HOOVER BRAGGADOCIO..." Read more
Customers find the pacing of the book slow and boring.
"...I found the book a bit slow in places, but its story is certainly interesting, and Fagone enlivens it at times with flights of verbal fancy such as “..." Read more
"...Although I am finding it very interesting, it was very slow to begin with...." Read more
"...The story is well-written, interesting, and moves at a nice pace...." Read more
"...is only now being told, or even remembered. The book takes forever to get going. There are also times when the story bogs down in details...." Read more
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Review of "The Woman Who Smashed Codes"
Top reviews from the United States
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- Reviewed in the United States on May 12, 2025I did not know anything about Elizebeth Friedman or William Friedman before reading this book. I suspect that most other people don't know about them, either. This is a fascinating history, a wonderful story, about the pair who solved codes, birthed cryptanalysis, and whose quiet, behind-the-scenes work led to criminals and war criminals being captured and defeated. This is one of the best history books I've read in a long time. My attention was riveted. History is always multi-faceted, and this is a particularly interesting facet, given that the war periods were a secret for so long. It has made me really interested in code-breaking, and I will probably read further on the subject.
- Reviewed in the United States on May 1, 2025Incredible how the science of code breaking in America evolved because of a young couple without means who met by happenstance. I really enjoyed learning the history of cryptology in America through the lenses of Elizebeth and William's lives, and am inspired by their pursuit of knowledge and dedication to their craft. Fagone did a great job with this one!
- Reviewed in the United States on March 15, 2025This book was a treasure from beginning to end. It contains an avalanche of history that was completely unknown to me and was riveting to read about. The narrative captures the very essence of a brilliant mind and a life well lived. It trains a well deserved spotlight on a unique and remarkable woman. It was the title that drew me in and once I started reading, I could not put it down. This is one of those books you’ll recommend over and over again. And I suspect it’s also one of those books you’ll remember for years to come. A sincere thank you to the author, Jason Fagone, for writing this marvelous book. Reading it was a gift!
- Reviewed in the United States on April 20, 2025Fascinating account of the then young woman who learned to translate codes. The translations saved the lives of thousands and helped save the U.S. in World War II.
- Reviewed in the United States on April 20, 2025This book reads like a novel, but it is true! My thanks to the author for taking the time to research and write this
- Reviewed in the United States on April 26, 2025Loved the characters; found much about lots of history I didn’t know. Almost two books could have been made: one of the Friedmans, and another surrounding history. Both things fascinating. But, together a bit of a slog to read.
- Reviewed in the United States on April 11, 2025I had thought that this was a work of historical fiction initially, lol, but it is a fascinating story of a husband and wife team that during the time from WW1 - WW2 developed the science of code breaking.
- Reviewed in the United States on April 15, 2025It is definitely a story of Feminist History and helps explain how the current government was set up. Worth the time.
Top reviews from other countries
- PentimentaReviewed in Germany on May 23, 2022
3.0 out of 5 stars DNF
Started out promising but got bogged down in too much uninteresting detail. On the other hand much information was missing that would have been interesting. Like, on the actual code cracking. I started skipping more and more after about half and quit soon after. Also, with all respect for their intellectual feat, I couldn't really warm to the couple's characters. Not sure they were always aware what they were instruments for. Two to three stars.
- Miriam VerheydenReviewed in Canada on September 25, 2018
5.0 out of 5 stars A must-read!
If you like historical non-fiction, you HAVE to read this book.
It's the real story about Elizebeth Smith Friedman and her husband William, both pioneers in crytology and code-breaking. They both played an immensely important role in World War II breaking encrypted codes that were supposed to be unbreakable, with Elizebeth hunting Nazi spies in South America and her husband breaking codes from the Japanese.
Elizebeth was brilliant, yet her role in fighting the war and creating techniques in code-breaking that are still used today have been largely edited out of the history books. This happened due to an unfortunate combination of politics, male chauvinism, the power-hungry J. Edgar Hoover taking all the credit for himself, and Elizebeth's inherent modesty and habit of downplaying her achievements.
Author Jason Fagone did a fantastic job shining the spotlight on this great woman and giving her the credit that is her due.
- Andy HaylerReviewed in the United Kingdom on March 7, 2018
5.0 out of 5 stars A fascinating story, well told.
This is the story of Elizabeth Friedman, a pioneering cryptoanalyst whose contribution to her area was huge and has only recently become fully acknowledged. She stumbled into the field when in the employ of a highly eccentric and very wealthy American called George Fabyan, who funded a research facility called Riverbank near Chicago, and hired her to assist in unlocking supposed secret messages from Frances Bacon embedded in the works of Shakespeare. Although Elizabeth quickly realised that this work was well-meaning but nonsensical, by chance she was redirected to working on breaking real codes when Fabyan offered the services of his facility to the US government when the US entered the first world war. Although a linguist rather than a mathematician, Elizabeth had a gift for spotting patterns in text, and quickly moved beyond the knowledge set out by the only textbook on the subject at that time. She was joined in this activity by her soon-to-be husband, Willaim Friedman, a scientist working at Riverbank. The careers of the husband and wife code breaking team are set out in this well-written and meticulously researched book (the bibliography runs to 90 pages) and a remarkable tale it is. Both were extremely talented in an obscure field that was about to become very important with the increasing use of radio, meaning that transmissions (say between governments) could be quite easily intercepted, and so needed to be encoded to preserve privacy.
Elizabeth's career involved breaking coded messages used by gangsters in the Prohibition era 1920s through to decrypting the messages of both the Japanese military and Nazi spies in the second world war. This included cracking the codes of the famous Enigma machine and its Japanese equivalent, roughly at the same time as was done at Bletchley Park in the UK by Alan Turing and his team. Elizabeth's work was far less publicised than her husband's due to the social norms of the day, but they literally wrote the book(s) on modern cryptography. Indeed when William was sent to Germany just after the war ended to try and discover what he could about German code-breaking, he was amazed to find their own textbooks, carefully translated into German, in pride of place inside the Nazi code-breaking labs.
The tale is told skilfully by the author, who does not get bogged down in the intricacies of the code-breaking (for me, a little more depth here would have been welcome) but brings to life the characters in the story. Fortunately, the Friedmans documented their work meticulously, though much of this was classified for decades, and so a wealth of material is available to draw on. It is fascinating to see how US inter-agency rivalry frequently caused setbacks, with the FBI anxious to claim credit for the remarkable results of Elizabeth's code-breaking team based at the less glamourous US coastguard agency. Her dismantling of a Nazi spy network in South America in particular reads like something from a crime novel.
A fascinating story, well told.
One person found this helpfulReport -
RiccardoReviewed in Italy on March 23, 2019
3.0 out of 5 stars Certamente interessante
Libro certamente interessante e storicamente valido. Tuttavia l'approccio alla biografia della criptologa secondo il mio punto di vista pecca di due debolezze. Se si vuole fare la biografia di un grande personaggio vi sono a mio parere due vie possibili. La prima è quella di analizzare l'opera del personaggio sotto l'aspetto tecnico. La seconda e quella di raccontare la sua vita considerando gli aspetti umani lasciando un po' da parte l'analisi tecnica sulle sue opere. Il libro in questione certa di unire i due aspetti con il risultato di un lavoro a volte troppo prolisso che rende la lettura faticosa.
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Maxime L.Reviewed in France on January 20, 2020
5.0 out of 5 stars Une histoire captivante
Je ne connaissais absolument pas Mme Friedsman, ni même le couple, et leurs exploits. J'ai entendu parler de ce livre dans une chronique sur la naissance de la cryptographie et je n'ai pas été déçu de la lecture.
Le livre est accessible à quiconque souhaite s'intéresser au rapport de la femme dans les sciences au XXe siècle et notamment lors de la Guerre, sans nécessiter de connaissances en mathématiques.